- Aerosol droplets – Coughing and sneezing project bacteria that stay airborne for several minutes in poorly ventilated rooms.
- Direct contact – Nose-to-nose greetings, shared toys and food bowls move organisms between animals in seconds.
- Fomites – Grooming tools, towels and human hands can harbour viable Bordetella for hours, especially in cool, humid environments.
Effective control hinges on ventilation, disinfection, and vaccination.